Factor Structure, Measurement Invariance, and Psychometric Properties of the Reactions to Tests for Adolescents in a Portuguese Sample

Pires, CP, Putwain, DW ORCID: 0000-0001-5196-4270, Hofmann, SG, Vicente, AR and do Céu Salvador, M (2026) Factor Structure, Measurement Invariance, and Psychometric Properties of the Reactions to Tests for Adolescents in a Portuguese Sample. Journal of Psychopathology and Behavioral Assessment, 48 (2). ISSN 0882-2689

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Abstract

Adolescent test anxiety is concerning, yet few multidimensional tools with established cross-cultural validation and international use exist to assess it. This study validated Sarason’s Reactions to Tests in a large Portuguese adolescent sample (RTT-A) and critically examined the empirical and theoretical relevance of its most debated dimension, Test-Irrelevant Thinking, whose status as a core cognitive component of test anxiety versus a more general attentional disengagement process remains contested. A total of 1395 Portuguese adolescents (57.9% female, M age = 15.83) completed the RTT-A, with 299 also completing additional anxiety measures, and 120 completing a retest after five weeks. Two competing models – a four-factor solution including Test-Irrelevant Thinking and a three-factor model excluding it – were tested via confirmatory factor analysis. Both models showed good fit, strong internal consistency, test–retest reliability, and measurement invariance across gender. Convergent and divergent validity were supported by moderate to strong correlations with proximal constructs (physical symptoms, social anxiety, and performance anxiety in formal social situations), and weaker associations with more distal constructs (separation anxiety and harm avoidance). Notably, Test-Irrelevant Thinking consistently displayed lower factor loadings, weaker correlations with related constructs, and no incremental validity in predicting social or performance anxiety, questioning its role as a core component of test anxiety. These findings suggest it may reflect an attentional disengagement process rather than an anxiety-specific mechanism. Nonetheless, both RTT-A versions demonstrated sound psychometric properties, and utility for cross-cultural research and practice. The three-factor version may offer a more parsimonious assessment of test anxiety’s cognitive and affective-physiological components, while the four-factor model may be informative in studies exploring attentional or avoidance-related processes.

Item Type:	Article
Uncontrolled Keywords:	Test anxiety; Adolescents; Cross-cultural validation; Confirmatory factor analysis; Test-Irrelevant Thinking; Measurement invariance; 5203 Clinical and Health Psychology; 5205 Social and Personality Psychology; 52 Psychology; Behavioral and Social Science; Brain Disorders; Mental Illness; Mental Health; Clinical Research; Anxiety Disorders; Pediatric Research Initiative; 1701 Psychology; 1702 Cognitive Sciences; Clinical Psychology; 5201 Applied and developmental psychology; 5203 Clinical and health psychology; 5205 Social and personality psychology
Subjects:	B Philosophy. Psychology. Religion > BF Psychology L Education > LB Theory and practice of education
Divisions:	Education
Publisher:	Springer
Date of acceptance:	6 April 2026
Date of first compliant Open Access:	2 September 2026
Date Deposited:	02 Sep 2026 14:23
Last Modified:	02 Sep 2026 14:23
DOI or ID number:	10.1007/s10862-026-10285-5
URI:	https://researchonline.ljmu.ac.uk/id/eprint/29303

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