Distinct roles of anterior cingulate and subcortical regions supporting effort evaluation versus preparation

Kukkonen, N ORCID: 0000-0002-6153-1118, Braem, S ORCID: 0000-0002-2619-8225, Eayrs, JO ORCID: 0000-0001-8598-6064, Chai, M ORCID: 0009-0004-9756-7421, Mattioni, S ORCID: 0000-0001-8279-6118, Steendam, ST ORCID: 0000-0002-7247-1798, Boehler, CN ORCID: 0000-0001-5963-2780, Wiersema, JR ORCID: 0000-0001-5875-2051, Notebaert, W ORCID: 0000-0002-7281-7816 and Krebs, RM ORCID: 0000-0002-0676-7611 (2026) Distinct roles of anterior cingulate and subcortical regions supporting effort evaluation versus preparation. Imaging Neuroscience. ISSN 2837-6056

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Abstract

Cognitive effort encompasses the mental exertion invested to achieve a goal as well as the experienced cost associated with that exertion. The dopaminergic midbrain regions (i.e., ventral tegmental area/substantia nigra), ventral striatum, and anterior cingulate cortex have all been broadly implicated in effort regulation. However, less is known about the role of these regions in dissociable subprocesses such as effort evaluation versus effort preparation. In this preregistered functional MRI study with concurrent pupil-tracking, we disentangled the evaluation and preparation phase of reward- and effort-based motivation. In the evaluation phase, the typical valuation regions encoded high reward and low effort demand as motivational factors. In the preparation phase, the anterior cingulate cortex displayed increased activity for demanding high reward trials. The dopaminergic midbrain exhibited a positive reward effect only during task execution. The results suggest that when separating evaluation from preparation, regions traditionally thought of as primarily reward-attuned respond to high reward and low effort during evaluation but can assign a motivating signal to effort during preparation, while the anterior cingulate cortex integrates effort and reward prospect to subserve only preparatory control processes.

Item Type:	Article
Subjects:	B Philosophy. Psychology. Religion > BF Psychology
Divisions:	Psychology (from Sep 2019)
Publisher:	MIT Press
Date of acceptance:	18 September 2026
Date of first compliant Open Access:	7 October 2026
Date Deposited:	07 Oct 2026 10:03
Last Modified:	07 Oct 2026 10:03
DOI or ID number:	10.1162/imag.a.1417
URI:	https://researchonline.ljmu.ac.uk/id/eprint/29624

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