Cognition and Movement Among 5-7-year-old Children

O'Callaghan, L (2025) Cognition and Movement Among 5-7-year-old Children. Doctoral thesis, Liverpool John Moores University.

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Abstract

At the primary school stage, children experience rapid development in both movement and cognition. However, those living in an area of deprivation often exhibit lower-than-expected age-related skills, emphasizing the need for targeted interventions. A well-designed physical education curriculum can play a crucial role in fostering executive function and self-regulation, which are vital for children’s everyday health, academic success, and overall well-being. To achieve this, firstly it is essential to clarify the nature of the relationship between movement and executive function, as current research debates whether the quantity or quality of movement is more strongly associated with these cognitive processes. Secondly, experimental research is needed to determine how physical education pedagogical interventions grounded in motor learning theory can effectively support the development of executive functions and self-regulation in children.
The overall aim of this thesis is to explore the influence of different aspects of movement on cognition among children aged 5-7 years living in an area of socio -economic disadvantage. Study 1 within this PhD thesis investigated the associations of physical activity dose and movement quality with executive functions in children aged 5-6 years living in an area of deprivation. Study 2 and Study 3 assessed the efficacy of utilizing Linear and Nonlinear pedagogy within Physical Education to improve children’s executive function and self-regulation aged 5-7 years. The data used in Study 1, Study 2 and Study 3 was collected from within the SAMPLE-PE project clustered randomised control trial where 360 children (age 5.9±0.3 years, 55% girls) from 12 primary schools were assessed at 3 timepoints (T0 = baseline, T1 = post-test, T2= follow-up) and randomly allocated to a 15-week Linear pedagogy (LP n=3) or Nonlinear pedagogy (NP n=3) PE intervention delivered by trained coaches, or to a control group (n=6) where schools followed usual practice. In study 1 movement was assessed using accelerometery (physical activity dose), test of gross motor development 3 (movement proficiency) and divergent movement assessment (movement exploration). In study 1 and study 2 the NIH toolbox, an iPad-based test was used to measure executive function. In study 3, the Strength and Difficulties Questionnaire (SDQ) (Goodman, 1997) and Response to Challenge Scale (RCS) (Lakes, 2012) was used to assess self-regulation.
Study one showed that after controlling for demographics, motor competence and physical activity variables better predict executive functions when considered together. When considered individually both motor competence variables were significant predictors of executive function whilst physical activity variables were not. Among the two movement competence facets, exploratory movement exhibited the strongest association with executive function. The findings of study two suggest that primary PE interventions focussing on motor skills underpinned by Linear pedagogy and Nonlinear pedagogy can support the development of some executive functions. Participation in Nonlinear pedagogy PE interventions led to an improvement in working memory when compared to participation in the control group at the post-intervention and follow-up timepoints. Participation in Linear pedagogy led to an improvement in cognitive flexibility when compared to the control group at follow-up. Participation in both Linear and Nonlinear pedagogy led to no improvement in inhibitory control. Study Three suggest that primary PE interventions focussing on motor skills underpinned by Linear pedagogy and Nonlinear pedagogy can support the development of some aspects of self-regulation. Participation in Nonlinear pedagogy led to an improvement in the SDQ total difficulties score of self-regulation at the post-intervention and follow-up timepoints and an improvement in the RCS physical score at follow-up. Participation in Linear pedagogy led to an improvement in RCS total score at post-test, an improvement in RCS cognitive score at follow-up and a deterioration in SDQ total difficulties score at post-test and follow-up. Finally, participation in Linear pedagogy led to an improvement in the pro social behaviour score of self-regulation at the post-intervention and follow-up timepoints.
These studies demonstrate that movement competence and physical activity variables better predict executive function when they are combined. These studies also show that Linear and Nonlinear pedagogy have a beneficial effect on different aspects of executive function and self-regulation. Together, these findings highlight the importance of prioritizing movement quality in schools and highlight how PE pedagogies underpinned by motor learning theory can effectively enhance both executive function and self-regulation.

Item Type:	Thesis (Doctoral)
Uncontrolled Keywords:	Executive Function; Motor Competence
Subjects:	R Medicine > RC Internal medicine > RC1200 Sports Medicine
Divisions:	Sport and Exercise Sciences
Date of acceptance:	16 May 2025
Date of first compliant Open Access:	24 June 2025
Date Deposited:	24 Jun 2025 11:25
Last Modified:	24 Jun 2025 11:25
DOI or ID number:	10.24377/LJMU.t.00026483
Supervisors:	Foweather, L, Boddy, L and Rudd, J
URI:	https://researchonline.ljmu.ac.uk/id/eprint/26483

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