Characterization and Evaluation of Interferential Current Stimulation for Functional Electrical Stimulation

Osorio, R, Edmondson, J, Hall, SM, Saavedra, F, Sáez, J, Poulton, A, FitzGerald, J, Aqueveque, P, Andrews, B and Jarvis, J ORCID: 0000-0001-8982-6279 (2025) Characterization and Evaluation of Interferential Current Stimulation for Functional Electrical Stimulation. Artificial Organs. ISSN 0160-564X

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Abstract

Background: Interferential current stimulation (ICS) has long been employed in neuromodulation and physical therapy, yet its mechanisms and potential applications in functional electrical stimulation (FES) remain under-explored. We present new data, including neural activation reported by muscle force measurement, to evaluate the potential advantages of ICS, such as selective targeting and reduced discomfort. Methods: Experiments were conducted on human participants, focusing on ulnar and median nerve activation with stainless steel and commercial conductive hydrogel electrodes. Key parameters, including electrode configuration, frequency, current amplitude, and skin preparation, were investigated to test their effects on activation thresholds, force generation, and user comfort. Results: Our results revealed that ICS can achieve proportional muscle force control, although its efficiency was lower than rectangular biphasic pulse stimulation. The application of moisturizing cream and gel significantly improved comfort and reduced activation thresholds, underscoring their importance in optimizing ICS protocols. However, ICS required higher electrical power and caused discomfort during burst initiation with all electrodes, presenting challenges for its practical use in FES. Furthermore, our findings indicated that ICS did not exclusively activate neural regions at the difference or “beat” frequency but also by the carrier frequency, challenging some prior assumptions in the literature. Conclusion: These results highlight the need for further research and practical measurements of neural recruitment and muscle fatigue and into the mechanisms of nerve activation and neuromuscular junction transmission with stimulation via the skin surface. Innovations in electrode design, stimulation waveforms, and protocols are also needed to enhance the efficacy and comfort of ICS.

Item Type:	Article
Additional Information:	This is the peer reviewed version of the following article: Osorio, R., Edmondson, J., Hall, S.M., Saavedra, F., Sáez, J., Poulton, A., FitzGerald, J., Aqueveque, P., Andrews, B. and Jarvis, J. (2025), Characterization and Evaluation of Interferential Current Stimulation for Functional Electrical Stimulation. Artificial Organs. https://doi.org/10.1111/aor.15027, which has been published in final form at https://doi.org/10.1111/aor.15027. This article may be used for non-commercial purposes in accordance with Wiley Terms and Conditions for Use of Self-Archived Versions. This article may not be enhanced, enriched or otherwise transformed into a derivative work, without express permission from Wiley or by statutory rights under applicable legislation. Copyright notices must not be removed, obscured or modified. The article must be linked to Wiley’s version of record on Wiley Online Library and any embedding, framing or otherwise making available the article or pages thereof by third parties from platforms, services and websites other than Wiley Online Library must be prohibited.
Uncontrolled Keywords:	40 Engineering; 4003 Biomedical Engineering; Neurosciences; Bioengineering; 0903 Biomedical Engineering; 1103 Clinical Sciences; Biomedical Engineering; 4003 Biomedical engineering
Subjects:	R Medicine > RC Internal medicine > RC1200 Sports Medicine
Divisions:	Sport and Exercise Sciences
Publisher:	Wiley
Date of acceptance:	9 May 2025
Date Deposited:	08 Aug 2025 08:59
Last Modified:	08 Aug 2025 09:00
DOI or ID number:	10.1111/aor.15027
URI:	https://researchonline.ljmu.ac.uk/id/eprint/26912

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