Evidence of lead poisoning and the co-occurrence of metabolic disease in Archaic/Early Classical (6th–5th century BCE) Laurion, Greece

Lagia, A, Patterson, S and De Groote, I ORCID: 0000-0002-9860-0180 (2025) Evidence of lead poisoning and the co-occurrence of metabolic disease in Archaic/Early Classical (6th–5th century BCE) Laurion, Greece. Homo - Journal of Comparative Human Biology. ISSN 0018-442X

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Abstract

Lead is one of the most toxic heavy metals and environmental pollutants on earth capable of adversely affecting every organ in the human body, with harmful short- and long-term effects. In the Laurion region of southeastern Attica, Greece, the extraction of silver-rich lead ores has been practiced since prehistoric times. This area was heavily mined during the late Archaic and Classical periods significantly contributing to Athens’ wealth and sovereignty. Mining and metallurgical activities declined towards late antiquity but resumed in the late 19th century, continuing until the end of the 20th century. Vestiges of these activities still dot the landscape posing potential environmental risks. Although the chemical effects of lead on the human skeleton are well-documented, the osteological imprint of lead contamination, especially in classical antiquity, remains unexplored. This paper examines lesions characteristic of lead poisoning found on the remains of a 2-year-old infant from Laurion dating to the Archaic/Early Classical period (6th–5th century BCE). The study employs non-invasive techniques, including macroscopic analysis, digital microscopy, plain radiography, and micro-CT imaging, to assess the presentation, distribution, pathogenesis, and etiology of the lesions. Anatomical areas formed by endochondral ossification, including the metaphyses of the long bones, the sternal ends of mid-ribs, and the condyle(s) of the mandible, are affected by bone hypertrophy and the formation of lead lines or lead bands. Additionally, hyperplasia of the cranial vault is diagnostic of anemia, while lesions on the endocranial surface indicate encephalopathy, which is associated with high levels of lead exposure and is often fatal. The presence of lesions diagnostic of scurvy and those consistent with rickets further supports the co-occurrence of multiple metabolic diseases in the infant skeleton. The manifestation of these lesions can provide insights into the history of lead toxicity and its lasting effects.

Item Type:	Article
Uncontrolled Keywords:	4301 Archaeology; 4303 Historical Studies; 43 History, Heritage and Archaeology; Pediatric; Lead Poisoning; 0699 Other Biological Sciences; 2101 Archaeology; Anthropology; 3109 Zoology; 4301 Archaeology; 4401 Anthropology
Subjects:	G Geography. Anthropology. Recreation > GN Anthropology Q Science > QH Natural history > QH301 Biology
Divisions:	Biological and Environmental Sciences (from Sep 19)
Publisher:	Schweizerbart Science Publishers
Date of acceptance:	18 February 2025
Date of first compliant Open Access:	29 August 2025
Date Deposited:	29 Aug 2025 11:56
Last Modified:	29 Aug 2025 12:00
DOI or ID number:	10.1127/homo/2025/1878
URI:	https://researchonline.ljmu.ac.uk/id/eprint/27024

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