Gamma-ray burst X-ray plateaus as evidence of pre-prompt afterglow

Guidorzi, C, Maccary, R, Maistrello, M, Kobayashi, S ORCID: 0000-0001-7946-4200, Bulla, M and Frontera, F Gamma-ray burst X-ray plateaus as evidence of pre-prompt afterglow. Astronomy & Astrophysics. ISSN 0004-6361 (Accepted)

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Abstract

Most gamma-ray burst (GRB) X-ray afterglow light curves are characterised by a plateau, followed by a normal power-law decay, interpreted as afterglow emission -- radiation emitted by the shocked interstellar medium swept up by the blast wave. Despite numerous alternative interpretations, the origin of the plateau remains unclear. In the early years of the Neil Gehrels Swift Observatory, it was suggested that the plateau might be afterglow radiation that began before the prompt gamma-ray emission, with its time profile appearing as an artefact of assuming the prompt gamma-ray emission start time as zero (the so-called 'prior activity model'). We aim to test the plausibility of the prior activity model by leveraging the current Swift sample of early X-ray afterglows of GRBs with measured redshifts, which is more than eight times larger than the one originally used (463 vs 56). We modelled the GRB rest-frame X-ray afterglow luminosities assuming a simple power law with the true reference time preceding the prompt gamma-ray emission trigger time by T_0 and the X-ray luminosity L_0 at the trigger time as free parameters. We tested each case applying both ̧hi^2 and runs tests. For 90% of our sample, the model provides a successful description. In ten cases, the afterglow peak is identified and modelled appropriately. Using the 300 GRBs with accurate parameter estimates, we confirm the anti-correlation between L_0 and T_0 with 0.7 dex scatter. In addition, selecting the sub-sample of 180 from the literature with reliable estimates of the isotropic-equivalent released energy Eγiso peak luminosity L_ γ ̊m iso and intrinsic peak energy E_̊m p,i of the ν,F_ν spectrum of the prompt gamma-ray emission, we find a correlation between L_0, T_0, and Eγiso (0.4 dex scatter) over nine decades in L_0 and common to all kinds of GRBs. The afterglow likely begins in most cases before the start of the detected prompt gamma-ray emission by a lognormally-distributed rest-frame delay with a mean of 103s and 0.8 dex dispersion. As also suggested by the recent discoveries from the Einstein Probe of X-ray emission beginning long before the prompt gamma rays, our results suggest that prior activity may be much more frequent than what has tacitly been assumed.

Item Type:	Article
Uncontrolled Keywords:	5101 Astronomical Sciences; 51 Physical Sciences; 7 Affordable and Clean Energy; 0201 Astronomical and Space Sciences; Astronomy & Astrophysics; 5101 Astronomical sciences; 5107 Particle and high energy physics; 5109 Space sciences
Subjects:	Q Science > QB Astronomy Q Science > QC Physics
Divisions:	Astrophysics Research Institute
Publisher:	EDP Sciences
Date of acceptance:	22 September 2025
Date of first compliant Open Access:	6 November 2025
Date Deposited:	06 Nov 2025 16:41
Last Modified:	06 Nov 2025 16:45
DOI or ID number:	10.1051/0004-6361/202556663
URI:	https://researchonline.ljmu.ac.uk/id/eprint/27518

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