Adverse childhood experiences, and violence and criminal justice outcomes in adulthood—the moderating role of protective and compensatory childhood experiences

Quigg, Z ORCID: 0000-0002-7212-5852, Bellis, MA ORCID: 0000-0001-6980-1963, Butler, N ORCID: 0000-0002-4938-7870, Wilson, C, Harris, J ORCID: 0000-0001-6584-1642, Hearne, E ORCID: 0000-0002-5308-5736 and Millings, M ORCID: 0000-0002-1870-9435 (2025) Adverse childhood experiences, and violence and criminal justice outcomes in adulthood—the moderating role of protective and compensatory childhood experiences. BMC Medicine, 23 (1). pp. 1-13. ISSN 1741-7015

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Abstract

Background
Globally, there is substantial evidence on the association between adverse childhood experiences (ACEs) and violence and criminal justice exposure. However, emerging research suggests that protective and compensatory childhood experiences (PACEs) may moderate these associations. This study aims to examine the contributing role of PACEs in mitigating the association between ACEs, and violence victimisation and criminal justice exposure in adulthood.

Methods
A cross-sectional representative household survey of adults in a region of the UK examined exposure to ACEs and violence victimisation in adulthood and criminal justice exposure (arrested/incarcerated). Three PACE measures were included: trusted adult, trusted friend, and engagement in extra-curricular activities (e.g. sports teams). Analyses used chi-squared and binary logistic regression.

Results
The odds of experiencing violence or being arrested/incarcerated were higher as ACE count increased, both with and without a trusted adult or friend; however, odds were higher in those without a trusted adult or friend compared to those with a trusted adult or friend across nearly all ACE count categories (e.g. adjusted prevalence of violence victimisation amongst those with 4 + ACEs and no trusted adult, 72% vs. 4 + ACEs with a trusted adult, 53%). The odds of being arrested/incarcerated were also higher in those without engagement in extra-curricular activities compared to those with engagement in extra-curricular activities across nearly all ACE count categories. However, the odds of experiencing violence were higher in those with experience of engaging in extra-curricular activities compared to those without experience of engagement in extra-curricular activities across all ACE count categories.

Conclusions
ACEs, particularly when experienced in accumulation, are associated with increased exposure to violence in adulthood and the criminal justice system. However, associations are moderated by exposure to PACEs, particularly always having a trusted adult or friend in childhood. Surprisingly, the role of extra-curricular activities differed from that of a trusted adult or friend, which warrants further investigation. Focusing prevention efforts on preventing ACEs and building resiliency in childhood is vital for reducing the long-term impacts of ACEs on individuals, communities, and public health and law enforcement services.

Item Type:	Article
Uncontrolled Keywords:	11 Medical and Health Sciences; General & Internal Medicine; 32 Biomedical and clinical sciences; 42 Health sciences
Subjects:	R Medicine > RA Public aspects of medicine > RA0421 Public health. Hygiene. Preventive Medicine R Medicine > RJ Pediatrics > RJ101 Child Health. Child health services H Social Sciences > HV Social pathology. Social and public welfare. Criminology > HV7231 Criminal Justice Administrations
Divisions:	Justice Studies (from Sep 19) Public and Allied Health
Publisher:	BioMed Central
Date of acceptance:	16 October 2025
Date of first compliant Open Access:	17 November 2025
Date Deposited:	17 Nov 2025 11:13
Last Modified:	17 Nov 2025 11:30
DOI or ID number:	10.1186/s12916-025-04459-3
URI:	https://researchonline.ljmu.ac.uk/id/eprint/27572

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