Riding a Golf Cart Versus Walking: A Study on the Physiological and Performance Differences in Tournament Golf

O'Donnell, A, Murray, A, Jones, A, Harrison, JE ORCID: 0000-0002-5648-146X, Lindsay, A, Bennett, T, Bishop, C, Donovan, TF ORCID: 0000-0003-3937-6286, Morton, JP ORCID: 0000-0003-2776-2542, Langan-Evans, C ORCID: 0000-0003-1120-6592 and Close, GL ORCID: 0000-0002-7210-9553 (2025) Riding a Golf Cart Versus Walking: A Study on the Physiological and Performance Differences in Tournament Golf. European Journal of Sport Science, 26 (1). ISSN 1746-1391

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Abstract

Golf demands sustained physical effort and effective fatigue management, especially in competitive play. Allowing players to ride golf carts in elite play has raised concerns about potential performance advantages, yet well-controlled studies are lacking. This study examined the effects of golf cart use on physiological, physical and cognitive outcomes in competitive golfers. Sixteen males (mean age: 21 ± 3 years; handicap: 2.3 ± 3.7) completed two randomised competitive rounds on a championship course (6587m; 19°C), either walking with a caddie or riding a golf cart. Physiological measures included activity energy expenditure (Actiheart), core temperature, heart rate and perceived exertion (0–100). Physical outcomes were step count, carry distance, clubhead speed, ball speed and muscle power. Cognitive workload (NASA-Task Load Index) was assessed post-round. The step count and activity energy expenditure were significantly higher for walking than using a golf cart (17,007 ± 1708 vs. 6274 ± 1111 steps; 880 ± 279 vs. 456 ± 155 kilocalories). Core temperature was higher for walking at holes 6, 12, and 18 (p = 0.022). The heart rate increased across the round when walking but decreased while using a cart (p < 0.01), and post-round exertion was higher for walking (41 ± 19 vs. 25 ± 14 and p < 0.001). Carry distance, clubhead and ball speed did not differ. NASA-Task Load Index subscales of physical demand and performance (reverse scored) were higher for walking. Relative to walking, golf cart use lowered internal physiological and external physical load, without impairing muscle power or shot performance. Cognitively, walking imposed higher physical strain and reduced perceived performance. Further research should explore whether these physiological, physical and cognitive outcomes impact performance across multiday tournaments.

Item Type:	Article
Uncontrolled Keywords:	Humans; Body Temperature; Walking; Cognition; Energy Metabolism; Heart Rate; Golf; Sports Equipment; Adult; Male; Muscle Strength; Athletic Performance; Physical Exertion; Young Adult; cognitive; energy expenditure; equality; golf; golf‐cart; performance; Humans; Golf; Male; Athletic Performance; Walking; Young Adult; Heart Rate; Energy Metabolism; Physical Exertion; Adult; Body Temperature; Sports Equipment; Muscle Strength; Cognition; 4206 Public Health; 42 Health Sciences; Humans; Golf; Male; Athletic Performance; Walking; Young Adult; Heart Rate; Energy Metabolism; Physical Exertion; Adult; Body Temperature; Sports Equipment; Muscle Strength; Cognition; 0913 Mechanical Engineering; 1106 Human Movement and Sports Sciences; Sport Sciences; 4207 Sports science and exercise; 5201 Applied and developmental psychology
Subjects:	R Medicine > RC Internal medicine > RC1200 Sports Medicine
Divisions:	Sport and Exercise Sciences
Publisher:	Wiley
Date of acceptance:	24 November 2025
Date of first compliant Open Access:	19 January 2026
Date Deposited:	19 Jan 2026 09:50
Last Modified:	19 Jan 2026 09:50
DOI or ID number:	10.1002/ejsc.70099
URI:	https://researchonline.ljmu.ac.uk/id/eprint/27933

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