Redefining the gold standard and recommendations for adopting new approach methodologies (NAMs) in support of the Three Rs

Madden, J ORCID: 0000-0001-6142-5860, Enoch, SJ ORCID: 0000-0001-9111-5783, Paini, A and Cronin, MTD ORCID: 0000-0002-6207-4158 (2026) Redefining the gold standard and recommendations for adopting new approach methodologies (NAMs) in support of the Three Rs. ATLA Alternatives to Laboratory Animals. ISSN 0261-1929

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Abstract

Traditionally, animal testing has been considered the gold standard in determining potential effects of chemicals on humans. However, this dogma is increasingly being questioned, not only due to ethical and financial implications, but also because of the poor translatability of the results of animal tests to humans. Therefore, there is a need to modernise the concept of the gold standard and ensure that any new approach is flexible, adaptable and as future-proof as possible. Herein, we reflect on recent suggestions for updating, or redefining, the traditional gold standard of animal testing and propose a new definition. This proposal focusses more on the process of answering a specific question, using all available tools, rather than seeking to recapitulate an animal test. New approach methodologies (NAMs) provide an ever-expanding array of tools that can assist product development and play a key role in chemical assessment strategies. Ten recommendations for developing fit-for-purpose NAMs and increasing their acceptance are presented

Item Type:	Article
Uncontrolled Keywords:	0707 Veterinary Sciences; Toxicology; 3009 Veterinary sciences
Subjects:	R Medicine > R Medicine (General) R Medicine > RS Pharmacy and materia medica
Divisions:	Pharmacy and Biomolecular Sciences
Publisher:	SAGE Publications
Date of acceptance:	7 January 2026
Date of first compliant Open Access:	23 February 2026
Date Deposited:	26 Jan 2026 09:58
Last Modified:	23 Feb 2026 10:12
DOI or ID number:	10.1177/02611929261423850
URI:	https://researchonline.ljmu.ac.uk/id/eprint/27975

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