Effects of Elevated CO2 on Yield and Nutritional Quality of Kale and Spinach: A Meta-Analysis

Ekele, JU ORCID: 0009-0008-8349-5024, Obaje, JO, Zajitschek, SRK ORCID: 0000-0003-4676-9950, Webster, RJ ORCID: 0000-0002-3424-9301, Perez De Heredia Benedicte, F ORCID: 0000-0002-2537-3327, Lane, KE ORCID: 0000-0002-9092-2927, Fadel, A and Symonds, RC ORCID: 0000-0001-6838-2904 (2026) Effects of Elevated CO2 on Yield and Nutritional Quality of Kale and Spinach: A Meta-Analysis. Biology, 15 (2). p. 152. ISSN 2079-7737

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Abstract

Elevated atmospheric CO2 is known to alter plant physiology, yet its specific effects on nutrient-rich leafy vegetables remain insufficiently quantified. This study aimed to examine how eCO2 influences yield and nutritional quality in kale (Brassica oleracea) and spinach (Spinacia oleracea) through the first meta-analysis focused exclusively on these crops. Following the Collaboration for Environmental Evidence (CEE) guidelines, we systematically reviewed eligible studies and conducted a random-effects meta-analysis to evaluate overall and subgroup responses based on CO2 concentration, crop type and exposure duration. Effect sizes were calculated using Hedges’ g with 95% confidence intervals. The analysis showed that eCO2 significantly increased biomass in spinach (g = 1.21) and kale (g = 0.97). However, protein content declined in both crops (spinach: g = −0.76; kale: g = −0.61), and mineral concentrations, particularly calcium and magnesium, were reduced, with spinach exhibiting stronger nutrient losses overall. The variability in response across different CO2 concentrations and exposure times further underscores the complexity of eCO2 effects. These results highlight a trade-off between productivity and nutritional quality under future CO2 conditions. Addressing this challenge will require strategies such as targeted breeding programmes, biofortification, precision agriculture and improved sustainable agricultural practices to maintain nutrient density. This research provides critical evidence for policymakers and scientists to design sustainable food systems that safeguard public health in a changing climate.

Item Type:	Article
Uncontrolled Keywords:	3108 Plant Biology; 31 Biological Sciences; Nutrition; 2 Zero Hunger; 06 Biological Sciences; 31 Biological sciences
Subjects:	G Geography. Anthropology. Recreation > GE Environmental Sciences T Technology > TX Home economics > TX341 Nutrition. Foods and food supply Q Science > QK Botany R Medicine > RC Internal medicine > RC1200 Sports Medicine
Divisions:	Biological and Environmental Sciences (from Sep 19) Sport and Exercise Sciences
Publisher:	MDPI AG
Date of acceptance:	23 December 2025
Date of first compliant Open Access:	28 January 2026
Date Deposited:	28 Jan 2026 09:47
Last Modified:	28 Jan 2026 09:47
DOI or ID number:	10.3390/biology15020152
URI:	https://researchonline.ljmu.ac.uk/id/eprint/27989

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