Life Cycle Assessment of Modular Steel Construction for Sustainable Social Housing in the UK

Nangir, D ORCID: 0009-0006-6931-3832, Gkantou, M ORCID: 0000-0003-2494-405X, Brás, A ORCID: 0000-0002-6292-2073, Nikitas, G ORCID: 0000-0002-3250-2449, Ferentinou, M ORCID: 0000-0001-6892-7919, Riley, M, Clark, P and Humphreys, S (2026) Life Cycle Assessment of Modular Steel Construction for Sustainable Social Housing in the UK. Civileng, 7 (1). ISSN 2673-4109

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Abstract

The UK faces an urgent challenge to simultaneously accelerate housing delivery and reduce whole-life carbon emissions, yet robust empirical evidence on the carbon performance of modular steel housing remains limited. This study aims to quantify the carbon impacts of a modular light-gauge steel frame social housing dwelling in the UK and to benchmark its performance against contemporary low-carbon construction typologies. A cradle-to-grave life cycle assessment was conducted using primary project data from a real modular housing development, with embodied carbon modelled in One Click LCA and operational energy assessed through SAP 10.2-verified datasets. The results indicate a total whole-life carbon footprint of 91.3 tCO2e over a 50-year period, with embodied emissions (A1–A3) accounting for 38.2% and operational energy and water use contributing 48.1%. The normalised embodied carbon intensity of 366 kgCO2e/m2 (A1–A5) is comparable to recent high-performing cross-laminated timber buildings, demonstrating that optimised modular steel systems can allow for low-carbon outcomes typically associated with bio-based construction. Sensitivity analysis shows that low-carbon foundation concrete, bio-based insulation, and steel optimisation can reduce upfront emissions by approximately 8–10%. Dynamic energy simulations were also used to assess how different design choices influence operational carbon emissions. This study provides transparent, real-project evidence of the whole-life carbon performance of UK modular light-gauge steel frame housing and identifies practical design strategies for further decarbonisation. The findings support informed decision-making for policymakers, designers, and housing providers seeking scalable, low-carbon residential solutions.

Item Type:	Article
Uncontrolled Keywords:	life cycle assessment; whole-life carbon; modular construction; light-gauge steel frame (LGSF); embodied carbon; operational energy; bio-based materials; low-carbon housing; geopolymer concrete; building sustainability; 4005 Civil Engineering; 40 Engineering; 12 Responsible Consumption and Production; 13 Climate Action; 7 Affordable and Clean Energy; 4005 Civil engineering
Subjects:	T Technology > TA Engineering (General). Civil engineering (General)
Divisions:	Biological and Environmental Sciences (from Sep 19) Civil Engineering and Built Environment
Publisher:	MDPI
Date of acceptance:	4 March 2026
Date of first compliant Open Access:	22 May 2026
Date Deposited:	22 May 2026 13:39
Last Modified:	22 May 2026 13:39
DOI or ID number:	10.3390/civileng7010018
URI:	https://researchonline.ljmu.ac.uk/id/eprint/28620

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